RESUMEN
Simple Summary Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an α coronavirus that causes major disease outbreaks, producing up to 100% mortality rates in piglets during the first 7 days after birth. In this study, we used microcapsules with inactivated PEDV fed to mice by oral administration to improve the effectiveness of the oral delivery method for protection against PEDV infection, and avoided digestive degradation in the acidic environment of the stomach. In addition, the PEDV microcapsules displayed remarkable storage tolerance to maintain the quality of the PEDV antigen. The PEDV microcapsules delivered the inactivated virus into the gut, stimulating the specific mucosal immune response in mice, which could directly neutralize the enterovirus. Abstract The porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, PEDV, which causes diarrhea, vomiting and death in piglets, causes huge economic losses. Therefore, understanding how to induce mucosal immune responses in piglets is essential in the mechanism and application against PEDV infection with mucosal immunity. A method of treatment in our research was used to make an oral vaccine that packaged the inactive PEDV with microencapsulation, which consisted of sodium alginate and chitosan, and adapted the condition of the gut in mice. The in vitro release experiment of microcapsules showed that inactive PEDV was not only easily released in saline and acid solutions but also had an excellent storage tolerance, and was suitable for use as an oral vaccine. Interestingly, both experimental groups with different doses of inactive virus enhanced the secretion of specific antibodies in the serum and intestinal mucus, which caused the effective neutralization against PEDV in the Vero cell by both IgG and IgA, respectively. Moreover, the microencapsulation could stimulate the differentiation of CD11b+ and CD11c+ dendritic cells, which means that the microencapsulation was also identified as an oral adjuvant to help phagocytosis of dendritic cells in mice. Flow cytometry revealed that the B220+ and CD23+ of the B cells could significantly increase antibody production with the stimulation from the antigens' PEDV groups, and the microencapsulation could also increase the cell viability of B cells, stimulating the secretion of antibodies such as IgG and IgA in mice. In addition, the microencapsulation promoted the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10 and TGF-β. Moreover, proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, TNF-α, and IL-17, were inhibited by alginate and chitosan in the microencapsulation groups compared with the inactivated PEDV group. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the microparticle could play the role of mucosal adjuvant, and release inactivated PEDV in the gut, which can effectively stimulate mucosal and systemic immune responses in mice.
RESUMEN
The porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, PEDV, which causes diarrhea, vomiting and death in piglets, causes huge economic losses. Therefore, understanding how to induce mucosal immune responses in piglets is essential in the mechanism and application against PEDV infection with mucosal immunity. A method of treatment in our research was used to make an oral vaccine that packaged the inactive PEDV with microencapsulation, which consisted of sodium alginate and chitosan, and adapted the condition of the gut in mice. The in vitro release experiment of microcapsules showed that inactive PEDV was not only easily released in saline and acid solutions but also had an excellent storage tolerance, and was suitable for use as an oral vaccine. Interestingly, both experimental groups with different doses of inactive virus enhanced the secretion of specific antibodies in the serum and intestinal mucus, which caused the effective neutralization against PEDV in the Vero cell by both IgG and IgA, respectively. Moreover, the microencapsulation could stimulate the differentiation of CD11b+ and CD11c+ dendritic cells, which means that the microencapsulation was also identified as an oral adjuvant to help phagocytosis of dendritic cells in mice. Flow cytometry revealed that the B220+ and CD23+ of the B cells could significantly increase antibody production with the stimulation from the antigens' PEDV groups, and the microencapsulation could also increase the cell viability of B cells, stimulating the secretion of antibodies such as IgG and IgA in mice. In addition, the microencapsulation promoted the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10 and TGF-ß. Moreover, proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, TNF-α, and IL-17, were inhibited by alginate and chitosan in the microencapsulation groups compared with the inactivated PEDV group. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the microparticle could play the role of mucosal adjuvant, and release inactivated PEDV in the gut, which can effectively stimulate mucosal and systemic immune responses in mice.
RESUMEN
The demand for animal protein has increased considerably worldwide, especially in China, where large numbers of livestock and poultry are produced. Antibiotics have been widely applied to promote growth and prevent diseases. However, the overuse of antibiotics in animal feed has caused serious environmental and health risks, especially the wide spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), which seriously affects animal and human health, food safety, ecosystems, and the sustainable future development of animal protein production. Unfortunately, AMR has already become a worldwide challenge, so international cooperation is becoming more important for combatting it. China's efforts and determination to restrict antibiotic usage through law enforcement and effective management are of significance. In this review, we address the pollution problems of antibiotics; in particular, the AMR in water, soil, and plants caused by livestock and poultry manure in China. The negative impact of widespread and intensive use of antibiotics in livestock production is discussed. To reduce and mitigate AMR problems, we emphasize in this review the development of antibiotic substitutes for the era of antibiotic prohibition.